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1. Understand the application of theories, principles and models of learning in education and training 1.1 Analyse theories, principles and models of learning 1.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be applied to teaching, learning and assessment For these criteria, you should write an essay. Word count: 600 minimum. You should analyse a number of major theories, principles and models of learning. For this assignment, it is useful to discuss the major schools of thought in relation to learning – Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Humanism. Of course, you can choose to discuss other models and theories if you wish. Briefly discuss each one, then add analysis to your work – you should be comparing and contrasting the ideas raised, and considering the opinions of theorists and learning experts on them. You should then write about how you can apply the ideas which you have analysed in practice. How can these theories, principles and models of learning be applied to your teaching, learning and assessment? 1.3 Analyse models of learning preferences 1.4 Explain how identifying and taking account of learners’ individual learning preferences enables inclusive teaching, learning and assessment For these criteria, you should write an essay. Word count: 600 minimum. You should analyse models of learning preference – for example, Fleming’s VARK model, or the work of Honey and Mumford. Include at least two models of learning preference, although writing about more allows you to have a deeper understanding of the subject, and also gives you more scope for your analysis. You should discuss these models, looking for their positives and limitations. From this, move on to explain how learning preferences can be identified and used to enable inclusive teaching, learning and assessment. How does considering learning preferences improve your teaching practice?
1.1 Analyse theories, principles and models of learning:
In the book “The Act of teaching” which was written by Kim Metcalf, Deborah Bainer Jenkins, Donald Cruickshank, first published (1995), content coverage related to understanding oneself as a teacher.
The Cognitive School of Thought – Brain based learning where teachers utilize what is known about how information is taken in, processed, stored in the brain, and retrieved they also work to understand the mental process of learning and utilize what is known about attention, memory, and how information can be made to be more understandable.
It is kind of memory recall or backward learning where learners try to use their prior knowledge to solve a recent problem. Learners also actively participate by using their previous learning experience about the topic and try to match similar scenario that he/she have done in the past.
The Humanistic School of Thought – Humanism as an approach to education and learning paradigm was being developed since the 1960s as a contrast to cognitivism and behaviorism and the perception of a human being as an object in scientific inquiry. Humanism starts from the belief in inherent human goodness and contrasts Sigmund Freud‘s and biological approaches. It Suggests that learning improves in a classroom that is more humane and when the school is made to fits the child.
Each learner is different in their way, learner should have the freedom to choose the way they feel comfortable to learn. Learner should not be forced to be learned and educator should understand the level of their learner, because not every learner has same level of understanding and they might come from different background of education as well.
The Behavioral School of Thought – learning is accomplished best when teachers know how to utilize the learning environment to encourage learning, for example chunking information, associating what they are learning with what they already know, allow for more practice, reward learners for correctly accomplishing something.
Rewarding and praising could be a great motivator for learners. However, educator should make sure all learners are getting consistent and quick feedback of their work and educator have to make sure, they are using consistent method of evaluating their work and in a fair judgement manner. Educator may use some reward system such as giving them stars or stickers on student worksheets or in student’s planner to motivate them but reward system should not be always applicable because sometime it make learners confused and they might only study for getting rewards rather than actual learning.
In behaviorism, learners are basically passive; on the other hands in cognitivism learners process, store and retrieve information for future use, at the same time learner uses the information in order to process and transform to new information. In behaviorism, educator presents the information and students demonstrate their understanding. In cognitivism, educator provides opportunity for students to connect new schema. Behaviorism focuses on objectively observable behavior whereas cognitivism focuses on human process and store information.
In constructivism, learns learn through constructing new ideas and connect them with their current or past knowledge. In humanism, learners participate actively in learning activities and they are responsible making their choice towards learning. In constructivism, educators encourage students to analyze, interpret, and predict information whereas in humanism, educators motivate learns to use their own learning style and strategy.
All these theories somehow are connected with our psychology. Learners need motivational entity such as praise, good grades, and gold stars. Educators need to determine what students are thinking while solving a specific task. Learners should have freedom to choose the way they want to achieve their own goals.
1.2 Explain ways in which theories, principles and models of learning can be applied to teaching, learning and assessment:
Applying theories, principles and models of learning to teaching, learning and assessment never been an easy task. Educator should aware of many entities.
Educator should use frequent feedback and assess observable behavior in such a way where learners can take part in choral practice, dictations, and drill practice. While creating lesson plan, educator should keep in mind that assessment procedures it could be verbal feedback, individua feedback or feedback to whole class. Educator should also try make sure possible instant feedback in a consistent manner. Educator should also create a lesson plan where every level of learners can take part in learning activity and judgement should be fair. Educator may use some reward system to motivate students.
While preparing lesson plan, educator should create a lesson plan where students already have some prior knowledge on the topics, so they are not panic or unwilling to participate in lesson activities and can actively involve by structuring their own learning process. Learners should be able to include their problem solving, monitoring and evaluating their own learning process. Learner must apply their critical thinking ability to solve the lesson topic. In class, learners can work in a group and take part in discussion to come up with answers by their own then each group can exchange their work with other group. It could be a great example of self-assessment as well. At the end, educator can ask challenging questions to justify learners understanding on the lesson topic.
Educator should create different lesson plans for all level of learners, where all learners can participate according to their level. Educator should than create groups in class according to the level of students and give them different task. Educator should create few sets of tasks which is suitable for different group of learners. While creating lesson tasks, should focus on lesson material where everyone has access and freedom of putting their own opinion on the task. Educator could include active learning environment in my classroom by using technologies in such a way where learner can actively participate. VARK model can be a great model to apply in class. Educator need to make sure lesson plans in such a way where VARK can be followed in teaching and learning. Activities could be made which is connected with VARK model. Educator can use picture cards, videos where students can see and create learning image in their brain also can use audio script which students can listen to important information about their lesson and may find answers. Handout and notes can be used which students can use for their own research. Use modelling TPR (total physical response) as well while teaching is great too.
1.3 Analyse models of learning preferences
Bloom’s Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing educational, training, and learning processes.
Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge): The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills.
Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self): The affective domain is one of three domains in Bloom’s Taxonomy, with the other two being the cognitive and psychomotor (Bloom, et al., 1956). For an overview of the three domains, see the introduction.
The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills): The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus, psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing.
This taxonomy of learning behaviors may be thought of as “the goals of the learning process.” That is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired a new skill, knowledge, and/or attitude.
Kolb’s Learning Styles and Experiential Learning Cycle:
David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984 from which he developed his learning style inventory.
Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on a four-stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles. Much of Kolb’s theory is concerned with the learner’s internal cognitive processes.
“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).
1. Concrete Experience – a new experience or situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience.
2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience – of particular importance are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience).
4. Active Experimentation – the learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them to see what happens.
Both Kolb’s (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.
Educator should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that suits them best.
Honey and Mumford:
Honey, P. & Mumford, A. (1982) Manual of Learning Styles London: P Honey.
Learning styles were developed by Peter Honey and Alan Mumford, based upon the work of Kolb, and they identified four distinct learning styles or preferences:
Activist, Theorist; Pragmatist and Reflector. These are the learning approaches that individuals naturally prefer and they recommend that in order to maximise one’s own personal learning.
Honey and Mumford’s learning style questionnaire, known as Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ) Theory has been widely used as an instrument of detecting students’ learning style in higher education (Duff & Duffy, 2002; Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004) and management practices (Allinson & Hayes, 1990) by probing general behavioural tendencies rather than learning. Honey and Mumford’s Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ) has been proposed as an alternative for Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI) and a later refined version (LSI-1985) (Duff & Duffy, 2002).
Another survey by Peter Honey did not reveal any particular ‘e-learning styles’, although as a result of his research he speculated that ‘Activists’ would want the pace to be faster and the chunks of time to be shorter than ‘reflectors’.
He also suggests that Activists might find it more difficult to motivate themselves and find time to complete the tasks than ‘Theorists’ and ‘Pragmatists’ who are likely to be more disciplined and better at planning it into their schedules. Time management skills are particularly important for effective on-line study.
He also suggests that Activists might find it more difficult to motivate themselves and find time to complete the tasks than ‘Theorists’ and ‘Pragmatists’ who are likely to be more disciplined and better at planning it into their schedules. Time management skills are particularly important for effective on-line study.
Malcolm Knowles’ Five Principles of Andragogy:
Those teaching adults should understand and practice the five principles of andragogy espoused by Malcolm Knowles, a pioneer in the study of adult learning.
Knowledge posited that adults learn best under the following circumstances:
The learning is self-directed.
The learning is experiential and utilizes background knowledge.
The learning is relevant to current roles.
The instruction is problem-centered.
The students are motivated to learn.
The terms ‘activist’, ‘reflector’, ‘theorist’, and ‘pragmatist’ are often used to represent the four key stages (or learning steps) in Kolb’s model of personality learning type. But they are actually from a learning types model developed by Honey and Mumford. This is based on Kolb’s work, but is different in detail and should not be confused. This personality profiling system is useful in determining what type of job an educator should do while dealing with teaching and learning.
Bloom’s taxonomy was produces for organizations with a top down approach, which follows a sequence but may not be an appropriate model to adopt when working with learners. Behaviorist model can be applied by incorporating reward system into the course content. However, humanism can be applied to ensure the teaching incorporates a holistic approach to the learning process which does not support of Behaviorism where learners are passive.
Kolb’s experiential learning theory focuses on individualism which is similar to cognitivism where learners process, store and retrieve information for future use.
1.4 Explain how identifying and taking account of learners’ individual learning preferences enables inclusive teaching, learning and assessment.
Differences in styles of learning have become important considerations at all levels of education. Individual learning preference will significantly influence the model that will be applied to the teaching method. Discussing various models, it seems all models can be applicable in teaching and learning. However, educator have to consider and select the most appropriate models for any given situation, not always use the same model. Application of models may vary according to different circumstances.
Applying the Honey and Mumford styles where activists are open minded and flexible. However, they take the immediately obvious action without thinking. Reflectors are careful, thoughtful and good at listening to others despite have the tendency to hold back from direct participation, they are slow to make up their minds and reach a decision. Theorists are logical thinker but restricted in internal thinking. Pragmatists keen to test things out in practice but rejects anything without obvious application.
In Honey and Mumford style, activists prefer group discussion, role-play and competitions. However, reflectors prefer stories, models and statistics. Theorists prefer case study, problem solving and discussion.
Kolb’s learning stages could by teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.
Educator have to keep in our mind, when a person is receiving information, the sender should have enough knowledge about the receiver as well. If now, the receiver may get wrong or misinformation. Let’s think about VARK model and their application in individual learning.
Visual learners can learn better when they see, observe and are in contact with the with the things through the predominant sense or sense of sight. Instructors should foster such activities and strategies that involves their visual sight for better and effective learning environments; on the other hands, auditory learners who learn the best when they listen or hear things so educator might include auditory aids such as audio scripts, songs, and audio tapes to effectively teach such learners.
Visual learners can learn better when they see, observe and are
in contact with the things through the predominant sense i.e. sense of sight. So it is imperative for instructor to
foster such activities and strategies that involves their visual sight for better, effective and fruitful learning
environs
Visual learners can learn better when they see, observe and are
in contact with the things through the predominant sense i.e. sense of sight. So it is imperative for instructor to
foster such activities and strategies that involves their visual sight for better, effective and fruitful learning
environs
Visual learners can learn better when they see, observe and are
in contact with the things through the predominant sense i.e. sense of sight. So it is imperative for instructor to
foster such activities and strategies that involves their visual sight for better, effective and fruitful learning
environs
References:
Ertmer, P. & Newby, T. (1993) ‘Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective’ in Performance Improvement Quarterly. 6 (4), pp. 50-72.
Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33–57). New York: Wiley.
Bibliography:
Books:
Kim Metcalf, Deborah Bainer Jenkins, Donald Cruickshank,(1995), The Act of teaching, Mcgraw-Hill (Tx); 3rd Edition (July 1, 2002)
Bloom, B. S.; Engelhart, M. D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Company
Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), New York: Wiley.
Honey, P. & Mumford, A. (1982) Manual of Learning Styles London: P Honey
Online:
https://teacherofsci.com/learning-theories-in-education/#Behaviourism(accessed 28/09/2020)
com/3-schools-of-thought-about-teaching-and-learning.html”>https://studentteachingtools.weebly.com/3-schools-of-thought-about-teaching-and-learning.html (accessed 28/09/2020)
Clarke, D. (2015) Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html (accessed 28/09/2020)
McLeod, S. (2010) Kolb – Learning Styles
www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html (accessed 28/09/2020)
Mobbs, R. (no date) Honey and Mumford . http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/training/eresources/teaching/theories/honey-mumford (accessed 28/09/2020)
Navarete,C., Wilde, J., Nelson,C., Martínez, R. and Hargett, R. (1990) Informal Assessment in Educational Evaluation http://www.ncela.us/files/rcd/BE017505/PIG3.pdf (accessed 28/09/2020)
Peterson, D (2013) 5 Principles for the Teacher of Adults http://adulted.about.com/od/teachers/a/teachingadults.htm (accessed 28/09/2020)
VARK (2017) The VARK Modalities [online] http://vark-learn.com/introduction-to-vark/the-vark-modalities/ (accessed 28/09/2020)
https://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/MBTI/Honey&Mumford1.htm (accessed 28/09/202)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337274707_Pedagogical_Implications_of_VARK_Model_of_Learning(accessed 28/09/2020)
Journal Articles
Ertmer, P. & Newby, T. (1993) ‘Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective’in Performance Improvement Quarterly. 6 (4), pp. 50-72. Available online at: http://www.csiss.org/SPACE/workshops/2007/UCSB/docs/ertmer_newby1993.pdf
Peterson, Deb. “5 Principles for the Teacher of Adults.” ThoughtCo, Aug. 27, 2020, Available online at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/principles-for-the-teacher-of-adults-31638
Kurt, S. “Andragogy Theory – Malcolm Knowles,” in Educational Technology, June 30, 2020. Retrieved from https://educationaltechnology.net/andragogy-theory-malcolm-knowles/
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